Applications of Brain-Based Research to Second Language Teaching and Learning: Part 1

ve an emotional hook. If we want to help the students in our classrooms remember important information, we need to hook the information to a positive emotional episode in the classroom.

Semantic Memory

Semantic memory is the type of memory most frequently used in the classroom. When we ask students to learn new vocabulary words or memorize grammar rules, lists, or details of specific content, we call on semantic memory. Semantic memory is used for remembering concepts and general knowledge. Unlike episodic memory, semantic memory is independent of context. When we remember information in semantic memory, we do not remember the time, place, and events surrounding the learning of this information. We remember the information itself.

Sensory Memory

Another type of memory is sensory memory. A great deal of what we recall is automatic. So much information comes to us simultaneously that to handle such a large influx of information without becoming overwhelmed, our brains have learned to sift and sort information. The sensory receptors act like a sponge; the conscious mind acts like a sieve, trying to get rid of whatever it considers irrelevant. It must respond quickly because more information is coming in all the time. Deciding what to keep and what to get rid of is an individual process. What is dropped from sensory memory in this process is gone forever.

Factors That Affect Attention

As language teachers, most of us have been taught that one important challenge we face is to retain students' attention. We have spent hours designing lesson plans and creating activities to do just that. Jensen (1998) suggests a different paradigm for teachers: Getting and keeping attention should be the exception, not the rule.

There are four basic factors that affect attention: novelty, need, emotion, and meaning. The use of novelty in the classroom for short periods is often effective in getting attention. Generally, the brain does poorly at sustaining high-level attention. External attention can be sustained at a constant level for perhaps only 10 minutes. Striving for constant attention from our students can be counterproductive. Novelty wears off after a few minutes but can be quite effective if used as a springboard for learning. Novelty can be the external stimulant for learning new information, but students must internally figure something out and make sense of it (Dudai, 1997). The brain continues to process information long after we are aware that we are doing it. This is why great ideas often seem to pop up out of nowhere. As language educators, should teachers use short, focused, divergent activities followed by diffused activities, such as reflection (Jensen, 1998).

Another key factor affecting attention is need. For instance, suppose you are very hungry and want to eat at a buffet. The buffet is free, but you are required to have a ticket. To get a ticket for the buffet

, you need to answer a few questions about the content of this discussion. Right away, I have your attention. You have a need, and paying attention to the discussion for a short period of time will help you satisfy this need.

Emotion is another important factor affecting attention. I have principally talked about the impact negative emotions can have on the learning environment and how learning to understand and manage emotions plays an important role in determining success in life (Goleman, 1995; Gardner, 1983). It is also important to examine the scientific links between emotions and learning. We know that emotions play an important role in the recall of episodic events, but what if emotions play a much larger role? LeDoux (1994) states that emotions not only have their own physical pathways in the brain but also drive attention and create meaning. Emotion actually helps reason focus the mind and set priorities. There is a link between the physical pathways in the brain for transmitting emotions and the chemicals the brain produces for everyday learning and memory (LeDoux, 1996). If we are to consider the important findings in this research, then we must concede that emotions play a much larger role in learning than previously imagined and that emotion is a key factor in both attention and learning.

The fourth important factor relating to attention is meaning. The brain is a pattern-seeking device. It seeks its own patterns and constructs its own meaning. The meanings the brain constructs are based on background and experiences. This concept has important implications for ESOL teachers. I have often heard teachers complain about their students' inability to understand grammatical patterns within the English language. There are many complex reasons students might struggle with a second language, but, clearly, we cannot ignore the fact that some of the difficulties they experience in the language learning process may be seeded in how we approach the teaching. If we want students to see the patterns that we have decided are important, we must make certain they know what those patterns are. Having done so, we must also be open to the different ways these learners process this information and construct meaning. The ways in which they process information may be evidence of more sophisticated cognitive processes than those we originally had in mind. We must also avoid constructing meaning too loosely. Meaning must always be equated with understanding. For example, I can tell you some interesting facts about the human brain, such as that it contains 100 billion nerve cells, 1 trillion supporting glial cells, and 1,000 trillion synaptic connections. These are impressive numbers. But for how many of us do these numbers carry meaning?

There are two conclusions I would like to draw from this discussion on factors affecting attention. We cannot teach anyone anything new unless we link the information to something students already know, or unless we create the experience with them.

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References

Dudai, Y. (1997). How big is human memory, or on being just useful enough. Learning and Memory, 3, 341-365.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Ban

《Applications of Brain-Based Research to Second Language Teaching and Learning: Part 1》